Thermally stabilized redox materials and applications thereof

ABSTRACT

The present disclosure addresses limitations in ferritic materials. In at least one aspect, the present disclosure provides core-shell nanoparticles exhibiting improved characteristics for implementations and adaptability in numerous applications. Further aspects of the disclosure provide core-shell nanoparticles for use in electronic, magnetic and electro-magnetic applications. Still, other aspects of the present disclosure provide core-shell nanoparticles for a thermochemical water-splitting reaction resulting in increased H 2  volume generation during multiple thermochemical cycles.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of International Application No PCT/US16/50528, filed Sep. 7, 2016, which is incorporated by reference in their entirety.

GRANT REFERENCE

This disclosure was made with government support under grant number CBET#1134570 by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the disclosure.

BACKGROUND I. Field of the Disclosure

Novel products, methods, and systems using thermally stabilized redox materials and their applications are disclosed. More particularly, but not exclusively, novel products, methods and systems are disclosed using ferrite materials, or more generically, ceramic compounds where iron oxide is chemically combined with metallic elements to enhance ferrites developed, by way of example, for their magnetic properties, electrical properties and H₂ generation capacity.

II. Description of the Prior Art

Ferrite materials are ferromagnetic (electrically non-conductive) and used for a variety of applications, which range from electro-magnets for devices such as refrigerators, small electric motors, and loudspeakers to inductors, transformers, microwaves, and other electronic industry components. Other uses include applications in thermochemical water-splitting technologies. Still, further uses applications contemplate general use in electronics, magnetics and electromagnetics. Unique applications, such as thermochemical water-splitting exist as do other unique applications. Limitations in these and other non-enumerated areas have and do continue to exist with the current materials and approaches.

SUMMARY

Therefore, what is needed are novel products, methods, and systems using thermally stabilized redox materials and their resulting applications.

According to at least one exemplary aspect, a method for core-shell nanoparticles is disclosed. The method uses, in at least one aspect, sol-gel derived ferrite nanoparticles from NiCl₂ and FeCl₂ precursors. The ferrite nanoparticles are dispersed in surfactant thereby forming a first dispersion and a copolymer surfactant is added to the first dispersion. A composition is formed by introducing a second dispersion into the first dispersion, wherein the second dispersion has a surfactant and a precursor including at least one of Y and Zr. The viscosity of the composition is increased by adding one or more organic compounds. Calcining the composition at one or more temperatures for one or more time periods forms the core-shell nanoparticles. In a preferred form, the method includes core-shell nanoparticles comprising NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ nanoparticles. In another preferred form, the method includes core-shell nanoparticles comprising NiFe₂O₄/ZrO₂ nanoparticles.

According to another exemplary aspect, core-shell nanoparticles are disclosed. The core-shell nanoparticles are sol-gel derived ferrite nanoparticles from NiCl₂ and FeCl₂ precursors. A first dispersion can be formed from the ferrite nanoparticles in surfactant. The first dispersion can include one or more copolymer surfactants. A composition can be formed from combining a second dispersion with the first dispersion, wherein the second dispersion includes a surfactant and a precursor including at least one of Y and Zr. A desired composition with a preferred viscosity can be formed the addition of one or more organic compounds. In a preferred form, the composition can be calcined at one or more temperatures for one or more time periods for forming the core-shell nanoparticles.

According to at least one other exemplary aspect, a ferrite core for magnetic and electrical applications is disclosed. The ferrite core includes sol-gel derived ferrite nanoparticles from NiCl₂ and FeCl₂ precursors forming a first dispersion. A surfactant and a precursor including at least one of Y and Zr form a second dispersion. Core-shell nanoparticles form from the combination of the first and second dispersion. A sintered core can be formed from the core-shell nanoparticles. A coating of one or more electrically conductive materials can be applied to the core-shell nanoparticles for measuring magnetic and electrical properties of the core-shell nanoparticles.

According to at least one other exemplary aspect, a magnetic, electronic and electro-magnetic device with core-shell nanoparticles is disclosed.

According to another exemplary aspect, a thermochemical water-splitting reactor wherein at least one of the one or more of the H₂ generating materials comprise core-shell redox nanoparticles is disclosed.

According to at least one other exemplary aspect, a method for H₂ volume generation is disclosed. The method uses, in at least one aspect, a thermochemical water-splitting reactor. One or more H₂ generating materials are introduced into the thermochemical water-splitting reactor, wherein at least one of the one or more of the H₂ generating materials comprise core-shell redox nanoparticles. In a preferred aspect, the core-shell redox nanoparticles are produced by a surfactant templating assisted sol-gel process, the nanoparticles comprise ferrite nanoparticles and core-shell comprises a ceramic.

According to at least another exemplary aspect, a thermally stable redox material for H₂ volume generation is disclosed. The material comprises redox nanoparticles having a core-shell morphology, wherein the core-shell inhibits grain growth and particle sintering of the nanoparticles. In a preferred form, the nanoparticles comprise ferrite nanoparticles and the core-shell comprises a ceramic.

According to at least one other exemplary aspect, a thermally stable redox material for H₂ volume generation is disclosed. The material can include redox particles, both nano as well as submicron, made up of refractory ceramic based ferrite.

According to at least one other exemplary aspect, a thermally stable redox material for H₂ volume generation is disclosed. The material can include redox particles immobilized on ceramic structures (e.g., yttrium stabilized zirconia, YSZ).

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Illustrated embodiments of the disclosure are described in detail below with reference to the attached drawing figures, which are incorporated by reference herein, and where:

FIG. 1 is an exemplary synthesis process for NiFe₂O₄, NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ core-shell nanoparticles and NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ powdered mixture core-shell nanoparticles in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 2 is an image of an exemplary ferrite pellet coated with a platinum target (a) and high temperature electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) set-up (b, c) in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 3 is a pictorial representation of XRD patterns of NiFe₂O₄, NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ core-shell nanoparticles before and after thermochemical water-splitting reaction in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 4 is a pictorial representation of SEM images of as synthesized nanoparticles (a, c) and after thermochemical water-splitting reaction (b, d) of NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ core-shell and NiFe₂O₄ nanoparticles in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 5 is a pictorial representation of TEM images showing agglomerated core-shell nanoparticles with particle size distribution in image (a) and core-shell NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ morphology with atomic fringes in image (b) in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 6 is a pictorial representation of transient H₂ profiles obtained with an Inconel reactor alone (wall effect) and during eight thermochemical cycles for NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ core-shell nanoparticles and NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ powdered mixtures and with water splitting and regeneration steps performed at 900° C. and 1100° C. respectively in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIGS. 7-10 is a pictorial representation of First-Order-Reversal-Curve (FORC) measurements of sol-gel derived NiFe₂O₄ and Y-ferrite in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 11 is a pictorial representation of a molded core from dry pressing ferrite powder in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 12 is a pictorial representation of molding and casting of ferrite powders to form the desired (e.g., toroid) core in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 13 are further exemplary synthesis processes of core-shell nanoparticles in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 14 is a pictorial representation of XRD pattern of core-shell NiFe₂O₄/ZrO₂ nanoparticles in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 15 is a pictorial representation of HRTEM images of a) NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃, b) NiFe₂O₄/ZrO₂ nanoparticles showing the core-shell morphology in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 16 is an exemplary synthesis route for Y-ferrite in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 17 is a pictorial representation of X-ray diffraction patterns of yttrium ferrite nanoparticles before and after thermochemical water-splitting reaction where regeneration is performed at 1150° C. and water-splitting was performed at 1050° C. in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 18 is a pictorial representation of synthesis method and schematic representation of NiFe₂O₄ immobilized porous YSZ structure in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 19 is a pictorial representation of SEM images of as-received YSZ (ZYFB-6) and NiFe₂O₂ immobilized YSZ before (calcined) and after water-splitting reaction in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 20 is a pictorial representation of a thermochemical water-splitting reactor set-up for H₂ generation in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 21 is a pictorial representation of transient H₂ profiles obtained during five thermochemical cycles for NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ core-shell nanoparticles in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 22 is a pictorial representation of transient H₂ profiles obtained during eight thermochemical cycles for NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ core-shell nanoparticles in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 23 is a pictorial representation of H₂ and O₂ volume produced during eight thermochemical cycles in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 24 is a pictorial representation of transient H₂ profiles obtained during five thermochemical cycles for NiFe₂O₄/ZrO₂ core-shell nanoparticles in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 25 is a pictorial representation of transient H₂ profiles obtained during 25 thermochemical cycles for yttrium iron garnet (YIG) in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 26 is a pictorial representation of H₂ and O₂ volume produced during 25 thermochemical cycles for yttrium ferrite nanoparticles in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 27 is a pictorial representation of H₂ and O₂ volume produced during 25 thermochemical cycles at isothermal condition for yttrium ferrite nanoparticles in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure;

FIG. 28 is a pictorial representation of immobilized NiFe₂O₄/YSZ structures stacked inside the Inconel tubular reactor packed with raschig rings in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure; and

FIG. 29 is a pictorial representation of a) H₂ volume generated and b) transient H₂ profiles during 20 consecutive thermochemical cycles where water splitting and regeneration steps were performed at isothermal conditions of 1100° C. using immobilized NiFe₂O₄/YSZ structure in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE TABLES

Illustrated embodiments of the disclosure are described in detail below with reference to the attached Tables, which are incorporated by reference herein, and where:

Table 1: Listing of contemplated ferritic materials of the present disclosure;

Table 2: H₂ and O₂ volumes produced during 25 thermochemical cycles using yttrium ferrite; and

Table 3: H₂ and O₂ volumes produced during 25 thermochemical cycles using yttrium ferrite under isothermal conditions.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION 1. Introduction

The present disclosure is directed to novel products, methods, and systems using thermally stabilized redox materials and their applications. The ferritic materials of the present disclosure exhibit properties suitable for a wide range of applications. The disclosure also contemplates, amongst other applications, unique ferrite materials prepared for applications in at least the electrical, magnetic and electromagnetic industries; and to this end, the creation of a ferritic core of desired dimensions using sol-gel derived soft ferrites of the present disclosure. Also presented are ferritic materials exhibiting desired parameters, such as element composition, phase and microstructure, acquired by standard test procedures for the measurement of different properties, which can include initial permeability, flux density, remanence, coercivity, core loss, curing temperature, electrical resistivity and density. Ferrites of the present disclosure can be characterized by x-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM/EDX) to understand phase composition and microstructural defects. In at least one exemplary aspect, toroidal cores are obtained by ferrite powders either dry pressed or mold casted and sintered to achieve desired geometries. The ferritic materials of the present disclosure are also proven to exhibit significant improvements in efficient H₂ generation using a thermochemical water-splitting process. These and other applications leveraging the ferritic materials of the present disclosure are contemplated.

Ferrite materials are ceramic compounds wherein iron oxide is chemically combined with metallic elements. They are ferromagnetic (electrically non-conductive) and used for a variety of applications, which include electro-magnets for the devices such as refrigerators, small electric motors, loudspeakers, etc. In the electronic industry ferrite cores are used for inductors, transformers and microwave components. Soft ferrites can have low coercivity, which means that their magnetization can be reversed without dissipation of energy (hysteresis loss) whereas the material's high resistivity can prevent eddy currents in the core. Low losses typically at higher frequencies find applications in making cores for inductors such as switched mode power supplies, and RF transformers. Examples of soft ferrites are—MnZn ferrite and NiZn ferrite; the former is known to have higher permeability and saturation induction whereas the latter is known to have higher resistivity. Contemplated in the present disclosure are some 35 different ferrites (undoped and doped including MnZn and NiZn ferrites) for use in various applications, including those enumerated herein, which are preferably synthesized by a sol-gel method.

2. Exemplary Materials & Methods 2.1. Synthesis of Ferrites and Core-Shell Ferrites

By way of introduction and according to at least one example, synthesis of doped/undoped ferrites such as those listed in Table 1 can include, by way of a specific example, stoichiometric quantities of NiCl₂.6H₂O and FeCl₂.4H₂O added in 1:2 (w/w) ratio in ethanol and sonicated for 90 min, until a visually clear solution is obtained. To this solution propylene oxide can added to achieve the gel formation. As-synthesized gels can be aged for 24 to 120 hours, dried at 100° C. for 1 hour and finally heated rapidly at the rate of 40° C./min up to different temperatures and quenched in air or N₂ environments to achieve a powdered ferrite material.

By way of introduction and according to at least one example, synthesis of core-shell ferrites such as those listed in Table 1 can include, by way of a specific example, synthesis of core-shell ferrites including sol-gel derived Ni-ferrite nanoparticles sonicated for 2 hours in ethanol (e.g., 80 ml) to achieve a dispersion. To this dispersion, pluronic P123 (e.g., 0.5 g in 20 ml ethanol) surfactant can be added and the resultant mixture can again be sonicated for 2 hours. Visually clear YCl₃.6H₂O (0.5 g) solution in ethanol (e.g., 20 ml) can be separately prepared and added dropwise to the Ni-ferrite dispersion and sonicated for 2 hours. Propylene oxide (e.g., 120 ml) can be added to obtain a gel formation. The resultant gel can be aged for 48 hours and preheated at 120° C. for 2 hours and calcined at 600° C. as per the ramp rate shown in FIG. 1.

2.2. Preparation of Ferrite Pellets

By way of introduction and according to at least one example, ferrite pellet preparation can include calcined Ferrite powdered materials, such as those listed in Table 1, dry pressed into pellets with an applied pressure of 3500 psi using a Carver hydraulic press. Dimensions of a pellet, as exhibited in FIG. 2, are 18 mm diameter and 2+0.2 mm thickness. The pellets can be sintered at 600° C. for 4 hours. The sintered pellets can also be sputter coated with a platinum target using an Edwards sputter coater. A typical pellet specimen of ZrO₂/Ni-ferrite is shown in FIG. 2, along with an exemplary high temperature impedance set-up.

TABLE 1 Listing of contemplated ferritic materials of the present disclosure. Powdered Ferrites of the type M₁Fe₂O₄ (M₁ represents a metal such as Ni, Mn, Zn, Co, ferrites Sn, Mg, Li, Cu, Y) (undoped) Powdered Ferrites of the type M_(1x)M_(2y)Oz (x: 0-1, y: 0-5, z: 4-10; M₁ and M₂ represent ferrites metals such as Ni, Mn, Zn, Co, Sn, Mg, Li, Cu, Y) (doped) Powdered Ni-ferrite + ZrO₂, Ni-ferrite + Y₂O₃, Ni-ferrite + YSZ, Ni-ferrite + ceria mixtures Core-shell Ni-ferrite/Y₂O₃, Ni-ferrite/ZrO₂, Co-ferrite/Y₂O₃, Co-ferrite/ZrO₂ ferrites Immobilized Ni-Ferrite on YSZ, Li-ferrite on YSZ, yttrium garnet on YSZ ferrites

2.3. Characterization of Ferrites 2.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction

In accordance with contemplative aspects of the present disclosure, various techniques for characterizing ferrites of the present disclosure are enumerated. According to one exemplary characterization, ferrite materials can be analyzed by a Rigaku Ultima Plus X-ray diffractometer (e.g., CuK∝ radiation, λ=1.5406 Å, 40 kV, 40 mA) and a commercially available graphite monochromator. The parameters such as 2θ, scanning speed and width of 10°≤2θ≤80°, 2° per minute and 0.020°, respectively were used for the X-ray diffraction measurements. Quantitative estimation of the phases present in the powders was performed using the JADE software, v. 7.5 (commercially available from supplier Materials Data Inc.) following the ‘Reference Intensity Ratio’ (RIR) method.

2.3.2 Scanning and Transmission Electron Microscopy (SEM/TEM)

In accordance with further contemplative aspects of the present disclosure, various techniques for characterizing ferrites of the present disclosure are enumerated. The morphology of the calcined ferrite powders can be analyzed using commercially available equipment, such as for example, a Zeiss Supra 40 VP field-emission scanning electron microscope, a Hitachi H-7000 FA and a JEM-2100 transmission electron microscope. The calcined powders enumerated in Table 1 can be used for the SEM analysis without coating with a conducting material. For the SEM analysis, the EHT (electron high tension) can be used in the range of 1 to 2 kV and with a standard aperture size of 30 μm. Both SE2 (secondary electron-2) and In-Lens detectors can be used for the analysis. For TEM analysis, ferrite nanoparticles can be sonicated in ethanol for 2 hours and this dispersion can be added onto the carbon coated copper grids, which can be further plasma cleaned to remove impurities.

2.3.3 Specific Surface Area (SSA)

In accordance with still further contemplative aspects of the present disclosure, various techniques for characterizing ferrites of the present disclosure are enumerated. Using a micromeritics Gemini II—2375 Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) specific surface area analyzer, calcined powders can be degassed at 200° C. to determine the SSA.

2.3.4 Electrochemical Impedance Analysis

In accordance with yet further contemplative aspects of the present disclosure, various techniques for characterizing ferrites of the present disclosure are enumerated. According to one exemplary characterization, electrochemical impedance analysis using a commercially available EIS300 tool can be used to measure impedance in the frequency range of 1 mHz to 300 kHz providing impedance values of 1 mΩ to 1013Ω. Oxygen diffusivity in solids can be estimated using a powerful electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurement technique. Using this tool, DC voltage of +8 volts and AC voltage of about 3600 mV rms can be applied to the sample. Commercially available ‘Echem analyst’ software can be used for the data analysis. To measure impedance of a pellet specimen, a set-up can be designed and built. In the set-up, the EIS300 tool can be interfaced with a computer. A coated pellet specimen can be sandwiched between two platinum disc electrodes and connected with platinum wires to the EIS300 terminals and finally placed inside a quartz tube. The assembly can be kept inside a Carbolite furnace capable of providing temperatures up to 1100° C. and impedance measurements can be performed.

2.4 Results and Discussion 2.4.1 Exemplary Application: Use in Thermochemical Water-Splitting Reaction

Sol gel derived Ni-ferrite and core-shell ferrite nanoparticles can be characterized by XRD and the profiles obtained are shown in FIG. 3. The 2θ reflections corresponding to 32.32°, 35.70°, 37.32°, 43.38°, 53.92°, 57.36° and 63° indicate nominally phase pure composition of NiFe₂O₄. Similarly, from the XRD pattern of core-shell material, Ni-ferrite and Y₂O₃ phases can be determined. When core-shell nanoparticles are subjected to, by way of example, thermochemical water-splitting at 900°-1000° C. and analyzed; their XRD pattern revealed additional 2θ reflection of characteristic Y₂O₃ at 33.86°. The intensity of major 2θ reflections corresponding to Y₂O₃ is found to be higher indicating crystallization of Y₂O₃ in core-shell nanoparticles after high temperature thermochemical water-splitting reaction.

SEM images of as-synthesized core-shell nanoparticles and NiFe₂O₄ nanoparticles are shown in FIGS. 4(a) and 4(c), respectively, which show sub-micron size amorphous particles/grains with somewhat spherical morphology. After thermochemical water-splitting reaction, the SEM image of NiFe₂O₄ (FIG. 4(d)) showed significant grain growth with particles size of 2-10 μm and these particles are found to have faceted grain surfaces. Contrasting these exhibited characteristics, the grain growth appears to be smaller in the SEM image of core-shell ferrite nanoparticles as shown in FIG. 4(b). TEM images of core-shell ferrite nanoparticles are shown in FIG. 5. Almost all particles exhibit core-shell morphology, however the nanoparticles are found to be agglomerated mostly within a single shell as shown in FIG. 5(a). Agglomeration of ferrite nanoparticles is likely due to their magnetic nature. The core particle size distribution presented as an inset in FIG. 5(a) indicates particle size ranging from 5-19 nm with average particle size of ˜12 nm. A detailed TEM image of a single core-shell nanoparticle with atomic fringes and Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) analysis are shown in FIG. 5(b). The d-spacing of core material of 0.48 nm evidently confirmed NiFe₂O₄ oriented along <111> plane, which is consistent with the d-spacing reported in the literature for NiFe₂O₄. The TEM image (FIG. 5(b)) further reveals the shell thickness of 3.26 nm in the core-shell nanoparticle.

NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ core-shell nanoparticles (e.g., SSA: 31.2 m²/g) can be loaded in an Inconel reactor and regenerated at 1100° C. for 2 hours. Next, the reactor temperature was lowered to 900° C. and water-splitting step can be performed for hydrogen generation. The transient hydrogen volume profiles generated during five consecutive thermochemical cycles are shown in FIG. 6. The results indicated relatively stable hydrogen volume generation during eight thermochemical cycles using core-shell material as compared with a powdered mixture. The SEM analysis of core-shell nanoparticles shows lesser grain growth as compared to NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ powdered mixture after performing multiple thermochemical cycles. Therefore, core-shell nanoparticle morphology appears to be effective in generating relatively similar hydrogen volumes over multiple thermochemical cycles.

As the materials can be prepared for use in hydrogen generation from a water-splitting reaction, in the following section one representative result obtained for core-shell ferrites is presented.

2.4.2 Exemplary Application: Electrical, Magnetic, and Electro-Magnetic

Magnetic measurements can also be performed on different ferrite materials. FIGS. 7-10 show First-Order-Reversal-Curve (FORC) measurements for a sol-gel derived Ni-ferrite material. Measurements can be performed by Lake Shore AGM and provide preliminary results. Hysteresis M(H) and first-order-reversal-curves (FORC) can be measured for each sample at ambient temperature using a Lake Shore MicroMag vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM). The FORC distribution function ρ(H_(a), H_(b)) can be calculated from the measured FORC data, and is the mixed second derivative, i.e., ρ(H_(a), H_(b))=−∂2 M(H_(a), H_(b))/∂H_(a)∂H_(b). The FORC diagram is a 2-D or 3-D contour plot of ρ(H_(a), H_(b)) with the axis rotated by changing coordinates from (H_(a), H_(b)) to H_(c)=(H_(b)−H_(a))/2 and H_(u)=(H_(b)+H_(a))/2, where H_(u) represents the distribution of interaction fields, and H_(c) represents the distribution of switching or coercive fields. The measured M(H) and FORCs can be presented in terms of magnetic moment (emu) versus applied magnetic field (Oe).

2.4.2.1 Results and Discussion

Exemplary methods of the present disclosure can generally be categorized into four tasks: i) synthesis of ferrite powdered material and formation of a core (e.g., a toroidal core), ii) characterization of the ferrite core, iii) conduct test procedures to analyze electrical properties and iv) electrically test cores using standard tests platforms. What follows is further description of the above-referenced tasks.

Synthesis and characterization of ferrite powdered materials, and formation of (e.g., toroidal) cores is further described as follows, wherein at least one exemplary aspect, MnZn and NiZn ferrites can be synthesized using commercially available metal salt precursors, which can be added in ethanol and sonicated until a visually clear solution is obtained. To this solution propylene oxide can be added to achieve a gel formation. As-synthesized gels can be aged, dried at 100° C. for 1 h and finally heated rapidly to different temperatures and quenched in air or N₂ environments.

Phase composition of ferrite materials can be analyzed by a commercially available Rigaku Ultima Plus X-ray diffractometer (e.g., CuK∝ radiation, λ=1.5406 Å, 40 kV, 40 mA) and a commercially available graphite monochromator. The parameters such as 2θ, scanning speed and width of 10°≤2θ≤80°, 2° per minute and 0.020°, respectively can be used. Quantitative estimation of the phases present in the powders can be performed using the JADE software, v. 7.5 (Materials Data Inc.) following the ‘Reference Intensity Ratio’ (RIR) method.

The morphology of the calcined ferrite powders can be analyzed using a commercially available JEM-2100 transmission electron microscope. A Zeiss Supra 40 VP field-emission scanning electron microscope, Hitachi H-7000 FA can be used to understand microstructure of (e.g., toroidal) cores. For the SEM analysis, the electron high tension (EHT) can be used in the range of 1 to 2 kV. Both SE2 (secondary electron-2) and In-Lens detectors can be used for the analysis. For TEM analysis, ferrite nanoparticles can be sonicated in ethanol and this dispersion can be added onto the carbon coated copper grids, which can be further plasma cleaned to remove the impurities.

Core shape (e.g., toroidal core shapes) formation can be achieved by using at least one of the following exemplary methods. Dry pressing can be used in accordance with at least one exemplary method. As such, the resultant ferrite powdered material can be taken into the mold and pressed under high pressure force using a Carver's press to form the core with desired geometry as shown in the FIG. 11. A stainless steel mold can be designed and machined as per the required dimensions.

Molding and casting can be achieved by using at least one of the following exemplary methods. In at least one exemplary step, as-prepared ferrite powdered materials can be added to a polymeric binder, (e.g., commercially available B73305 Ferro Corp., San Marcos, Calif.), which contains 60 wt % poly(vinyl butyral) (PVB) and 40 wt % dioctyl phthalate (DOP) in a solvent mixture or epoxy resin that can be cured at room temperature. In at least one other exemplary step, a slurry can be obtained in the prior step can be mixed thoroughly for few minutes and casted. Cast specimen can be dried and sintered at 1300-1500° C. in a commercially available Thermolyne 46100 furnace. FIG. 12 shows an exemplary schematic of the entire process of making toroidal core.

Characterization of ferrite core can be achieved by using at least one of the following exemplary methods. Core specimens can be characterized by x-ray diffraction (XRD), x-ray fluorescence (XRF), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM)/energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDX), which are commercially available. XRD can provide details about the phase purity and composition whereas SEM can provide the microstructure of the specimen with any defects (pores, triple junction, and boundary migration) in the microstructure. EDX analysis can provide elemental composition of the specimen.

Standardizing test procedures to measure electrical properties of ferrites can be achieved using at least one of the following methods. Standard test procedures can measure several electrical properties of ferrite materials, which include a) initial permeability, b) flux density, c) remanence, d) coercivity, e) core loss, f) curie temperature, g) electrical resistivity and h) density. Standard test can be further used on a routine basis to test ferrite specimens. Commercially available exemplary instrumentation can include, but is not limited to, an Agilent Technologies Network Analyzer (E5061B), a Wayne Kerr Precision Magnetics Analyzer (PMA3260A), an Agilent 34970A Data Acquisition/Switch Unit, and a Thermotron S-16 Temperature Test Chamber.

Electrical tests of the toroidal cores can be achieved using at least one or more of the standard tests enumerated herein. Ferrite (e.g., toroidal) cores can be designed, prepared and thoroughly analyzed by standard tests developed herein.

3. Applications in Thermochemical Water-Splitting

Among the several process investigated, thermochemical water-splitting process that produces cleaner H₂ without generating any CO₂ emissions are of principle interest unlike traditional methane steam reforming. During the thermochemical water-splitting process, both the oxidation and reduction reactions takes place simultaneously generating O₂ and H₂ in individual steps. Due to the inverse spinel structure, ferrite materials are best known redox materials for H₂ generation using this hybrid process. During this two-step process, the redox materials are partially reduced by releasing O₂ during the regeneration step at elevated temperatures of 1100° C.-1150° C. and later, releasing H₂ during the water-splitting step when steam is passed through the partially reduced redox material by compensating the oxygen vacancies created during the regeneration step. Together, a regeneration step and water-splitting step comprise one thermochemical cycle. NiFe₂O₄ nanoparticles proved to be the best material for efficient H₂ generation using a thermochemical water-splitting process. However at high temperature multiple thermochemical cycling, H₂ volume produced during the water-splitting step gradually decreases due to grain growth and sintering phenomenon. To address this issue, synthesis of novel core-shell ferrite nanoparticles using sol-gel technique was attempted, where these nanoparticles such as NiFe₂O₄ are encapsulated in the shell of thermally stable ceramic nanoparticles like ZrO₂ and Y₂O₃. Due to the high temperature applications of ceramic particles such as yttria, synthesis of novel refractory ceramic based ferrite nanoparticles such as yttrium ferrite using sol-gel technique is performed. Due to its strong ferromagnetic nature, U.S. Pat. No. 3,386,799 to Grodkiewicz et al. developed single crystal yttrium ferrite/yttrium iron garnet (YIG) at 1300° C. in a flux comprising lead fluoride and boron oxide, or mixtures thereof with lead oxide by adding calcium oxide. The single crystal YIG has been used in microwave devices. As YIG spheres are widely used as narrow band filters and microwave resonators, U.S. Pat. No. 4,060,448 to Nemiroff et al., discloses a procedure of growing YIG films by liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) technique at about 950° to 960° C. and later fabricating YIG disks on gadolinium gallium substrates for microwave applications. Due to its crystalline nature, YIG (Y₃Fe₅O₁₂) is widely used in variety of electronic devices. Due to the high quality of films produced by LPE techniques, a major interest has been drawn towards development of YIG films for applications in magnetic bubble domain devices and in microwave signal processing devices. U.S. Pat. No. 4,273,610 to Glass et al. developed a method for controlling the resonance frequency of single crystal YIG films which were grown by LPE. U.S. Pat. No. 4,256,531 to Kimura et al. discloses a process for producing high quality single YIG crystal of diameter 1 mm by mixing the components of Y₂O₃ and Fe₂O₃ with optional addition of rare earth oxides and Al₂O₃ or Ga₂O₃ as additional components and calcining them at 1000° C. Other disclosures such as U.S. Pat. No. 3,299,376 to Sedlak et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 4,420,731 to Schiebold et al. disclose the unique properties of YIG in the field of electromagnetics as resonators, oscillators, and other tunable devices. Further advancing past developments in the YIG art, what is disclosed is a unique sol-gel method which has a potential to commercially produce high quality YIG nanoparticles at lower cost. In one or more novel methods, systems and processes, what is claimed is the application of YIG nanoparticles in the field of renewable energy as an important source for H₂ generation via thermochemical water-splitting reaction.

H₂ as a cleaner fuel can be efficiently generated from a thermochemical water-splitting process. This can be a two-step process where in one or more of the steps (regeneration), the redox material(s) are heated at higher temperatures of 900° C.-1600° C. that create oxygen vacancies. In another one of the steps (water-splitting), H₂ can be produced by scavenging the oxygen from the steam at lower temperatures of 700° C.-1400° C. Together these two steps can be referred to as one thermochemical cycle. It has been observed that during multiple thermochemical cycles at such high temperatures, thermal stresses are induced in the redox materials leading to particle sintering and grain growth. Consequently, the H₂ volume generated during a thermochemical water-splitting process decreases with an increase in thermochemical cycles. Relatively stable H₂ volume can be generated during multiple thermochemical cycling operation(s) by making use of thermally stabilized redox materials.

For example, by encapsulating the redox nanoparticles within a ceramic shell, a core-shell morphology can be created, which can inhibit the grain growth or particle sintering of ferrite nanoparticles especially at high temperatures. Thus, the thin-shell of a ceramic material can act as a physical barrier preventing grain growth of ferrite nanoparticles. Thus, an object, feature or advantage of the present disclosure is contained in a method, system and process for making use of core-shell redox materials relatively stable H₂ volume generated during a multiple thermochemical cycling operation. In the present disclosure, methods, systems and processes provide synthesis of core-shell nanoparticles such as Ni-ferrite/Y₂O₃, and Ni-ferrite/ZrO₂ via a surfactant templating assisted sol-gel method. More broadly, the methods, systems and processes of the present disclosure disclose H₂ generation via thermochemical water-splitting reaction using core-shell nanoparticles. As yttria does not undergo any phase transformations at high temperatures, yttrium iron garnet (YIG) is synthesized and its H₂ generation ability is disclosed. Thus, the present disclosure reports, in at least one exemplary implementation, the hydrogen generation ability of yttrium ferrite synthesized using a sol-gel technique.

In addition, the present disclosure discloses thermal stabilization by immobilization of redox nanoparticles into a porous ceramic support of yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ, 10 mol % Y₂O₃) using a sol-gel technique. In a preferred aspect, immobilization can prevent grain growth and sintering of redox nanoparticles. Thus, an object, feature or advantage of the present disclosure is contained in a method, system and process for making immobilized redox nanoparticles onto a porous ceramic support producing relatively stable H₂ volume during a multiple thermochemical cycling operation.

3.1 Materials & Methods 3.1.1 Synthesis of Ni-Ferrite and Core-Shell Nanoparticles by Sol-Gel Method

Ni-ferrite can be synthesized by the sol-gel method using NiCl₂ and FeCl₂ precursors. These precursors can be sonicated in ethanol for about 90 minutes to obtain a visually clear solution. To this solution, propylene oxide can be added to achieve a gel formation. The gel can be aged, dried and calcined at different temperatures (600° C.-1000° C.) to obtain a ferrite material. The sol-gel derived Ni-ferrite can be sonicated in ethanol for 2 hours to achieve the preferred dispersion. To this dispersion, Pluronic P123/CTAB surfactant and the precursors of Y₂O₃ or ZrO₂ can be added and the dispersion can be sonicated for few hours. For Y₂O₃ and ZrO₂, yttrium chloride and Zr-isopropoxide precursors can be utilized respectively. Finally, propylene oxide or water can be added leading to the gel formation. The resultant gels are aged for 48 hours and can be preheated at 120° C. for 2 hours and calcined in air up to 800° C. An exemplary synthesis process in accordance with an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure is pictorially represented in FIG. 13.

After calcining the nanoparticles at 800° C., XRD analysis can be done to determine the phase composition. Sol gel derived Ni-ferrite and core-shell ferrite nanoparticles can be characterized by XRD and the profiles obtained are shown in FIGS. 14 and 15. The 2θ reflections corresponding to 32.32°, 35.70°, 37.32°, 43.38°, 53.92°, 57.36° and 63° indicate nominally phase pure composition of NiFe₂O₄, which is consistent with the ICDD (International Center for Diffraction Data) pattern. The XRD profile of these NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ core-shell nanoparticles is included in FIG. 3. The XRD pattern (not shown) of commercially available Y₂O₃ nanoparticles revealed the 2θ reflections of 29.24°, 33.86°, 35.98°, 38.02°, 39.92°, 41.76° 43.58°, 53.32° and 57.68°. The major peak positions of 35.98° and 43.58° corresponding to Y₂O₃ reflections in core-shell nanoparticles are found to be masked with 2θ major reflections of NiFe₂O₄. As the core-shell nanoparticles can be prepared by calcination at 800° C., in at least one exemplary aspect of the present disclosure the Y₂O₃ mostly remains in the amorphous form. When core-shell nanoparticles are subjected for thermochemical water-splitting at 900 C°-1000° C. and analyzed; their XRD pattern (FIG. 3) revealed additional 2θ reflection of characteristic Y₂O₃ at 33.86°. The intensity of major 2θ reflections corresponding to Y₂O₃ is found to be higher indicating crystallization of Y₂O₃ in core-shell nanoparticles after a high temperature thermochemical water-splitting reaction.

The XRD pattern of the NiFe₂O₄/(25 wt %)ZrO₂ core shell nanoparticles is shown in FIG. 14. Three characteristic peaks can be observed for zirconia at 2θ=30.22°, 50.39° and 60.06°, corresponding to the miller indices (111), (220), and (311). These 2θ reflections are found to be consistent with those reported in the art. The intensity of the peaks is found to increase with zirconia loadings. The resultant zirconia shell is found to be of tetragonal phase, which is consistent with the JCPDS, No 17-0923.

Core-shell morphology is clearly observed for the NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ and NiFe₂O₄/ZrO₂ nanoparticles. As shown in FIGS. 5 and 15, NiFe₂O₄ is coated with a uniform amorphous shell of Y₂O₃ or ZrO₂ with a shell thickness of 3.26 nm and 6.12 nm, respectively. The lattice spacing of 0.48 nm directly confirms the projected symmetry of NiFe₂O₄ oriented along the [111] plane. It is also observed that the refractory shell of Y₂O₃ and ZrO₂ are formed over the agglomerates of NiFe₂O₄ nanoparticles.

3.1.2. Synthesis of Refractory Garnet Ferrite by Surfactant Templating Assisted Sol-Gel Method

A refractory ceramics-based precursor can be used to prepare Y-ferrite. During sol-gel synthesis, YCl₃ and FeCl₂ precursors can be added in stoichiometric ratio in the presence of non-ionic and ionic surfactants such as Pluronic123 and cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB), respectively. These precursors can be sonicated in ethanol for about 60 minutes to obtain a visually clear solution. To this solution, propylene oxide can be added to achieve the gel formation. The gel will be aged, dried and calcined at 1000° C. to obtain Y-ferrite. The synthesis process in shown illustratively in FIG. 16.

As calcined powdered mixtures are analyzed for their phase composition using XRD analyzer range of 10°≤2θ≤70°. The XRD results revealed a garnet structure with the phase composition of Y₃Fe₅O₁₂ as shown illustratively in FIG. 17. The X-ray diffraction profile of the material obtained after multiple thermochemical water-splitting cycles is found to have same phase composition of Y₃Fe₅O₁₂.

3.1.3. Synthesis of Immobilized Ferrite Nanoparticles onto Porous YSZ

Precursor salts of nickel (NiCl₂.6H₂O) and iron (FeCl₂.H₂O) are provided in stoichiometric quantities in a glass beaker containing absolute ethanol and sonicated to achieve a visually clear solution. As-received YSZ (ZYBF-6, purchased from Zircar Zirconia, Inc.), can be cut into small hexagonal shaped structures and soaked in the solution of precursor salts for approximately 1 hour. Next, propylene oxide can be added to achieve a gel formation inside the porous structure. The resultant gel formed within the soaked porous YSZ structure can be aged for approximately 24 hours, preheated in a conventional oven at 100° C. for 1 hour and calcined at 600° C. at the rate of 2° C./min. A synthesis procedure for obtaining immobilized ferrite nanoparticles in a porous ceramic support is detailed in FIG. 18.

The morphology of as-received ZYFB-6 and NiFe₂O₄ immobilized ZYFB-6 can also be studied using SEM (FIG. 19). SEM study reveals that as-received ZYFB-6 is made-up of randomly oriented porous fibers whereas the immobilized structure indicated the presence of nanoparticles inside the porous ceramic support.

3.2 Results and Discussion

What follows is exemplary results and discussion from testing nanoparticles in a thermochemical water-splitting reactor. The experimental setup as shown illustratively in FIG. 20, consisted of a vertically split high temperature furnace (˜1200° C., Carbolite Inc., USA) to hold an Inconel tubular reactor (O.D.=1 inch, I.D.=0.8 inch, length=26 inch) loaded with the redox material and a horizontal tube furnace (Carbolite Inc., USA) to vaporize the deionized water, which was continuously pumped using a metering pump (Fluid Metering Inc., USA). Redox material(s) can be packed with raschig rings (Brewhaus America Inc., USA) inside an Inconel reactor. N₂ (ultra-high purity˜99.99%) can be used as a carrier gas. The N₂ flow rate can be controlled by the mass flow meter (AALBORG Inc., USA) mounted on the feed line. The O₂ evolved during the regeneration step can be continuously measured using a calibrated GPR2900 (Advanced Instruments Inc., CA) oxygen sensor. The sensor can utilize advanced galvanic sensor technology for detecting the partial pressure of O₂ from very low ‘ppm’ values to 100% level in the gas stream. The O₂ generated by the redox material during the regeneration step reacts at the sensing electrode and produces an electrical current proportional to its concentration in the gas stream. A sensor calibration of electric current output as a function of O₂ concentration can be performed to infer O₂ concentration profiles during the regeneration step. The concentration of the H₂ gas generated during the water-splitting step can be continuously monitored by a hydrogen gas sensor (H2SCAN Corp., USA.), which can be interfaced with the computer or programmable logic controller. As it is preferred that the H₂ sensor operate under dry condition, two moisture adsorption columns loaded with drierite (anhydrous calcium sulfate) (W.A. Hammond Drierite Inc., USA) can be installed between the reactor outlet and sensor inlet. All the process lines can be connected by seamless stainless steel (SS316) tubing, which can also include a thermal insulator such as glass wool (McMaster-Carr, USA). As a safety precaution, the H₂ gas generated at the reactor outlet can be continuously burned.

3.2.1. H₂ Generation via NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ Core-shell Nanoparticles

NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ core-shell nanoparticles were loaded in the Inconel reactor and regenerated at 1100° C. for 2 hours. Next, the reactor temperature was lowered to 900° C. and water-splitting step was performed for H₂ generation. The transient H₂ volume profiles generated during five consecutive thermochemical cycles at N₂ flow rate of 35 SCCM are shown in FIG. 21.

We have also investigated eight thermochemical cycles at N₂ flow rate of 75 SCCM and the transient H₂ profiles. For example, FIG. 22 shows transient H₂ profiles obtained during eight thermochemical cycles for NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ core-shell nanoparticles where water splitting and regeneration steps were performed at 900° C. and 1100° C., respectively with the carrier gas flow rate of 75 SCCM.

A similar trend in H₂ volume generation was observed at different flow rates. The H₂ and O₂ volume for eight thermochemical cycles for core-shell nanoparticles and powdered mixtures respectively, was found to be in stoichiometry. For example, FIG. 23 shows H₂ and O₂ volume produced during eight thermochemical cycles where regeneration and water-splitting steps were performed at 1100° C. and 900° C. respectively under N₂ flow rate of 75 SCCM.

3.2.2. H₂ Generation from NiFe₂O₄/ZrO₂ Core-Shell Nanoparticles

NiFe₂O₄/ZrO₂ core-shell nanoparticles were loaded in an Inconel tubular loaded packed with raschig rings where regeneration and water splitting were performed at 1100° C. and 900° C. respectively. The average hydrogen yield for five thermochemical cycles was found to be 2.45 ml/g. The transient profiles for the hydrogen produced during five consecutive thermochemical cycles is pictorially illustrated in FIG. 24, where water splitting is performed at 900° C. using NiFe₂O₄/(25 wt %)ZrO₂ core-shell nanoparticles.

3.2.3. H₂ Generation from Yttrium Ferrite or Yttrium Iron Garnet

Y₃Fe₅O₁₂ was synthesized by sol-gel technique and utilized for hydrogen generation from thermochemical water-splitting where water-splitting and regeneration steps were performed at 1050° C. and 1150° C., respectively. Twenty-five consecutive thermochemical cycles were performed with a regeneration time of 3 hours at average N₂ flow of 55 SCCM during the water-splitting step. Transient H₂ profiles are presented in FIG. 25 where the transient H₂ profiles are obtained during 25 thermochemical cycles and water splitting is performed at 1150° C. using yttrium ferrite nanoparticles.

Similar H₂ volume is observed over 25 cycles indicating that thermal stabilization is achieved. The O₂ volume recorded during the regeneration step is found to be stabilized and in stoichiometry with the H₂ produced per thermochemical cycle respectively. The data for H₂ and O₂ volumes for twenty-five thermochemical cycles is recorded in Table 2.

TABLE 2 H₂ and O₂ volumes produced during 25 thermochemical cycles using yttrium ferrite. Cycle # H₂ volume O₂ volume H₂ moles O₂ moles Mol Ratio 1 23.8254 13.1929 0.000589 0.001062 1.80 2 23.5829 11.1170 0.000496 0.001052 2.12 3 21.7532 9.5158 0.000425 0.000970 2.28 4 20.7580 9.2310 0.000412 0.000926 2.25 5 18.4857 10.3645 0.000463 0.000824 1.78 6 18.3509 9.8550 0.000440 0.000818 1.86 7 17.9622 9.8798 0.000441 0.000801 1.82 8 17.5683 9.2772 0.000441 0.000783 1.78 9 16.9953 9.9149 0.000443 0.000758 1.71 10 19.0324 10.9976 0.000491 0.000849 1.73 11 19.5260 10.7478 0.000480 0.000871 1.81 12 18.8957 9.2610 0.000414 0.000843 2.04 13 17.6923 9.8961 0.000442 0.000789 1.79 14 18.3692 9.2416 0.000413 0.000789 1.91 15 16.9378 8.6540 0.000386 0.000755 1.96 16 16.9570 9.2767 0.000414 0.000756 1.83 17 17.7608 8.9073 0.000398 0.000792 1.99 18 16.5655 9.2638 0.000414 0.000739 1.79 19 17.3545 9.2774 0.000414 0.000774 1.87 20 17.8661 9.2733 0.000414 0.000797 1.93 21 17.2999 9.3153 0.000416 0.000771 1.85 22 17.4526 9.4468 0.000422 0.000778 1.84 23 18.2789 9.658 0.000431 0.000815 1.89 24 16.8682 9.2822 0.000415 0.000752 1.81 25 17.0237 9.2809 0.000414 0.000759 1.83 Average 18.5265 9.7646 0.000437 0.000825 1.89

H₂ and O₂ volume produced by yttrium ferrite is found to be stabilized from cycle 5 to cycle twenty-five. For example, H₂ and O₂ volume produced during twenty thermochemical cycles where regeneration and water-splitting steps were performed at 1100° C. and 1150° C. respectively under N₂ flow rate of 55 SCCM is shown in FIG. 26.

A similar trend for thermal stabilization is found when twenty-five thermochemical cycles is performed on Y₃Fe₅O₁₂ under isothermal regeneration and a water-splitting temperature of 1100° C. under a constant N₂ flow rate of 45 SCCM. The data for H₂ and O₂ volumes for 25 thermochemical cycles is recorded in Table 3.

TABLE 3 H₂ and O₂ volumes produced during 25 thermochemical cycles using yttrium ferrite under isothermal conditions. Cycle # H₂ volume O₂ volume H₂ moles O₂ moles Mol Ratio 1 49.2135 23.3692 0.002195 0.001044 2.10 2 10.0981 5.8170 0.000450 0.000260 1.73 3 10.3862 5.6258 0.000463 0.000251 1.84 4 9.2072 4.7310 0.000411 0.000211 1.94 5 9.8079 4.5565 0.000437 0.000203 2.15 6 11.8010 5.7290 0.000526 0.000256 2.06 7 8.5530 4.4280 0.000381 0.000198 1.93 8 8.3841 4.6880 0.000374 0.000209 1.79 9 10.1612 5.9650 0.000453 0.000266 1.70 10 8.7790 4.4412 0.000391 0.000198 1.97 11 9.7896 5.0709 0.000437 0.000226 1.93 12 9.7500 5.5583 0.000435 0.000248 1.75 13 9.5194 4.8175 0.000425 0.000215 1.97 14 10.7270 4.9588 0.000478 0.000221 2.16 15 9.2130 5.3437 0.000411 0.000239 1.72 16 12.6500 6.8250 0.000564 0.000305 1.85 17 8.3230 4.6187 0.000371 0.000206 1.80 18 12.9840 6.9103 0.000579 0.000309 1.88 19 8.0170 3.8243 0.000358 0.000171 2.09 20 9.1281 4.7093 0.000407 0.000210 1.94 21 9.9540 4.3994 0.000444 0.000196 2.26 22 9.6840 5.5993 0.000432 0.000250 1.73 23 10.2840 4.7100 0.000459 0.000210 2.18 24 9.6210 4.7548 0.000429 0.000212 2.02 25 10.5310 5.5324 0.000470 0.000247 1.90 Average 11.4627 5.8793 0.000511 0.000263 1.94

H₂ and O₂ volume produced by yttrium ferrite is found to be stabilized from cycle 2 to cycle twenty-five for H₂ and O₂ volume produced during eight thermochemical cycles where regeneration and the water-splitting steps are performed isothermally at 1100° C. under N₂ flow rate of 45 SCCM as shown in FIG. 27.

Magnetic measurements were also performed on different ferrite materials. FIGS. 7-10 show FORC measurements for the sol-gel derived Ni-ferrite material. The measurements were performed by Lake Shore AGM and provided us as preliminary results. Hysteresis M(H) and first-order-reversal-curves (FORC) are measured for each sample at ambient temperature using a Lake Shore MicroMag vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM). The FORC distribution function ρ(H_(a), H_(b)) is calculated from the measured FORC data, and is the mixed second derivative, i.e., ρ(H_(a), H_(b))=−∂² M(H_(a), H_(b))/∂H_(a)∂H_(b). The FORC diagram is a 2-D or 3-D contour plot of ρ(H_(a), H_(b)) with the axis rotated by changing coordinates from (H_(a), H_(b)) to H_(c)=(H_(b)−H_(a))/2 and H_(u)=(H_(b)+H_(a))/2, where H_(u) represents the distribution of interaction fields, and He represents the distribution of switching or coercive fields. The raw data for measured M(H) and FORCs are presented in terms of magnetic moment (emu) versus applied magnetic field (Oe).

3.2.4. H₂ Generation from NiFe₂O₄ Immobilized into Porous Yttria Stabilized Zirconia (YSZ) Support

Three identical NiFe₂O₄ immobilized ZYFB-6 structures can be stacked on the top of each other in an Inconel tubular reactor packed with the ceramic raschig rings as shown in the FIG. 28. Approximately twenty thermochemical cycles can be performed isothermally at 1100° C. under a constant N₂ flow rate of 35 SCCM. During the regeneration step, the ferrite immobilized structures can be heated for 3 hours where the oxygen released can be continuously monitored using an online O₂ sensor. The H₂ volume generated during the water-splitting step can be continuously monitored using the H₂ sensor (HY OPTIMA from H2Scan). The H₂ volume produced over multiple thermochemical cycles is found to be stabilized after 4 consecutive thermal cycles. During the 1^(st) cycle, very high H₂ volume of 442.72 mL/g of material is observed.

The H₂ volume generated during 20 consecutive thermochemical cycles is shown in FIG. 29(a) whereas the transient H₂ volume generated is shown in FIG. 29(b). Overall during the 20 thermochemical cycles, a stable H₂ volume generation of avg. 231.26 mL/g/cycle is observed. NiFe₂O₄ immobilized into a porous ZYFB-6 structure appears to be more promising as compared with NiFe₂O₄ nanoparticles. NiFe₂O₄ nanoparticles present in the porous ZYBF-6 fibrous support appear to mitigate the grain growth during multiple thermochemical cycles. Thus, the porous ceramic support immobilized with redox nanoparticles is advantageous in mitigating the grain growth and preventing sintering thereby achieving stable H₂ volume over multiple thermochemical cycles.

4.0. Conclusions

H₂ as a cleaner fuel can be efficiently generated from a thermochemical water-splitting process. This can be a two-step process where in one or more of the steps (regeneration), the redox material(s) are heated at higher temperatures of 900° C.-1600° C. that create oxygen vacancies. In another one of the steps (water-splitting), H₂ can be produced by scavenging the oxygen from the steam at lower temperatures of 700° C.-1400° C. Together these two steps can be referred to as one thermochemical cycle. It has been observed that during multiple thermochemical cycles at such high temperatures, thermal stresses are induced in the redox materials leading to particle sintering and grain growth. Consequently, the H₂ volume generated during a thermochemical water-splitting process decreases with an increase in thermochemical cycles. Relatively stable H₂ volume can be generated during multiple thermochemical cycling operation(s) by making use of thermally stabilized redox materials.

For example, by encapsulating the redox nanoparticles within a ceramic shell, a core-shell morphology can be created, which can inhibit the grain growth or particle sintering of ferrite nanoparticles especially at high temperatures. Thus, the thin-shell of a ceramic material can act as a physical barrier preventing grain growth of ferrite nanoparticles. Thus, an object, feature or advantage of the present disclosure is contained in a method, system and process for making use of core-shell redox materials relatively stable H₂ volume generated during a multiple thermochemical cycling operation. In the present disclosure, methods, systems and processes provide synthesis of core-shell nanoparticles such as Ni-ferrite/Y₂O₃, and Ni-ferrite/ZrO₂ via a surfactant templating assisted sol-gel method. More broadly, the methods, systems and processes of the present disclosure disclose H₂ generation via thermochemical water-splitting reaction using core-shell nanoparticles. As yttria does not undergo any phase transformations at high temperatures, yttrium iron garnet (YIG) is synthesized and its H₂ generation ability is disclosed. Thus, the present disclosure reports, in at least one exemplary implementation, the hydrogen generation ability of yttrium ferrite synthesized using a sol-gel technique.

For example, by immobilization of redox material into a porous ceramic support the particle sintering or grain growth can be mitigated. Thus, an object, feature or advantage of the present disclosure is contained in a method, system and process for making immobilized redox nanoparticles into a porous ceramic support producing relatively stable H₂ volume during a multiple thermochemical cycling operation.

LIST OF REFERENCES CITED

The following documents are cited in this application, and are incorporated herein in their entirety:

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What is claimed is:
 1. A method for forming core-shell nanoparticles, comprising: providing sol-gel derived ferrite nanoparticles from NiCl₂ and FeCl₂ precursors; dispersing the ferrite nanoparticles in surfactant thereby forming a first dispersion; adding a copolymer surfactant to the first dispersion; forming a composition by introducing the first dispersion into a second dispersion, the second dispersion comprising a surfactant and a precursor of Zr, wherein the Zr precursor comprises Zr isopropoxide of at least 70% in IPA; increasing the viscosity of the composition by adding one or more organic compounds; and calcining the composition at one or more temperatures for one or more time periods for forming the core-shell nanoparticles.
 2. The method of claim 1 further comprising: sintering the core-shell nanoparticles at a sintering temperature.
 3. The method of claim 1 wherein the core-shell nanoparticles comprise NiFe₂O₄/Y₂O₃ nanoparticles.
 4. The method of claim 1 wherein the NiFe₂O₄/ZrO₂ nanoparticles further comprise calcining for at least 48 hours using a calcining process of at least 25° C.-150° C. at 2° C./min, 150° C.-300° C. at 3° C./min, and 300° C.-800° C. at 5° C./min.
 5. The method of claim 1 further comprising: coating the core-shell nanoparticles with one or more electrically conductive materials.
 6. The method of claim 1 further comprising: measuring magnetic and electrical properties of the core-shell nanoparticles.
 7. The method of claim 4 further comprising: providing a thermochemical water-splitting reactor.
 8. The method of claim 7 further comprising: loading the NiFe₂O₄/ZrO₂ nanoparticles into a tubular thermochemical water-splitting reactor packed with raschig rings and performing a regeneration step and a water splitting step at least at 1100° C. and 900° C. respectively.
 9. A ferrite core for magnetic and electrical applications, comprising: sol-gel derived ferrite nanoparticles from NiCl₂ and FeCl₂ precursors forming a first dispersion; a surfactant and a precursor including at least one of Y and Zr forming a second dispersion; core-shell nanoparticles formed from the combination of the first and second dispersion; a sintered core formed from the core-shell nanoparticles; and a coating of one or more electrically conductive materials on the core-shell nanoparticles for measuring magnetic and electrical properties of the core-shell nanoparticles.
 10. A method for a magnetic, electronic or electro-magnetic device, comprising: incorporating at least one ferrite core into the device, the ferrite core derived from the steps, comprising: sol-gel derived ferrite nanoparticles from NiCl₂ and FeCl₂ precursors forming a first dispersion; a surfactant and a precursor including at least one of Y and Zr forming a second dispersion; core-shell nanoparticles formed from the combination of the first and second dispersion; a sintered core formed from the core-shell nanoparticles; and a coating of one or more electrically conductive materials on the core-shell nanoparticles for measuring magnetic and electrical properties of the core-shell nanoparticles.
 11. A method for H₂ volume generation, comprising: providing a thermochemical water-splitting reactor; preparing sol-gel derived ferrite nanoparticles from NiCl₂ and FeCl₂ precursors; dispersing the ferrite nanoparticles in surfactant thereby forming a first dispersion; forming a composition by introducing the first dispersion into a second dispersion, the second dispersion comprising a surfactant and a precursor of Zr, wherein the Zr precursor comprises Zr isopropoxide of at least 70% in IPA; increasing the viscosity of the composition by adding one or more organic compounds; calcining the composition at one or more temperatures for one or more time periods for forming the core-shell nanoparticles; introducing the composition into the thermochemical water-splitting reactor; and producing NiFe₂O₄/ZrO₂ core-shell nanoparticles by a surfactant templating assisted sol-gel process.
 12. The method of claim 11 wherein the NiFe₂O₄/ZrO₂ nanoparticles further comprise calcining for at least 48 hours using a calcining process of at least 25° C.-150° C. at 2° C./min, 150° C.-300° C. at 3° C./min, and 300° C.-800° C. at 5° C./min.
 13. The method of claim 11, wherein the NiFe₂O₄/ZrO₂ core-shell nanoparticles comprise a coating of one or more electrically conductive materials.
 14. The method of claim 11 wherein the NiFe₂O₄/ZrO₂ nanoparticles are loaded into the thermochemical water-splitting reactor packed with raschig rings.
 15. The method of claim 14, further comprising performing a regeneration step and a water splitting step at least at 1100° C. and 900° C. respectively.
 16. The method of claim 11, further comprising yielding at least 2.45 ml/g of hydrogen from five thermochemical cycles.
 17. The method of claim 11, further comprising: synthesizing the nanoparticles with one or more chloride-based precursors.
 18. The method of claim 11, wherein the second dispersion includes IPA with at least 10% pluronic P123.
 19. A thermally stable redox material for H₂ volume generation, comprising: an immobilized redox nanoparticle material having a porous substrate; wherein the immobilized redox material inhibits grain growth and sintering of the nanoparticles.
 20. The thermally stable redox material of claim 19 wherein the nanoparticles comprise ferrite nanoparticles. 